What is pasteurisation?

Pasteurisation was invented by a French Scientist called Louis Pasteur during the nineteenth century. Pasteur discovered that heating milk to a high temperature and then quickly cooling it before bottling or packaging it could keep it fresh for longer. 

Today, the process of pasteurisation is widely used within the food and drink industry, and it is the most common form of heat treatment used on milk. Pasteurisation makes sure milk is safe to drink (by killing any bacteria) and also helps to prolong its shelf life.

The process of pasteurisation involves heating milk to 71.7°C for at least 15 seconds (and no more than 25 seconds). Because of the nature of the heat treatment it sometimes referred to as the ‘High Temperature Short Time’ (HTST) process. Once the milk has been heated, it is then cooled very quickly to less than 3°C. The equipment which is used to heat and cool the milk is called a ‘heat exchanger’. 

When the milk has been pasteurised it is bottled or packaged to be sold to consumers.

Type of Marriages in Hinduism

Ancient Hindu literature, such as Asvalayana Grhyasutra and Atharvaveda, identify eight forms of marriages. These are:

Brahma marriage – considered the religiously most appropriate marriage, where the father finds an educated man, proposes the marriage of his daughter to him. The groom, bride and families willingly concur with the proposal. The two families and relatives meet, the daughter is ceremonially decorated, the father gives away his daughter in betrothal, and a Vedic marriage ceremony is conducted. This type of wedding is now most prevalent among Hindus in modern India.

Daiva marriage – in this type of marriage the father gives away his daughter along with ornaments to a priest as a sacrificial fee. This form of marriage occurred in ancient times when yajna sacrifices were prevalent.

Arsha marriage – in this type of marriage, the groom gives a cow and a bull to the father of the bride and the father exchanges his daughter in marriage. The groom took a vow to fulfill his obligations to the bride and family life (Grihasthashram).

Prajapatya marriage – in this type of marriage, a couple agree to be married by exchanging some Sanskrit mantras (vows to each other). This form of marriage was akin to a civil ceremony.

The above four types of marriages were considered prashasta marriages (proper, religiously appropriate under Hinduism), since they contains vows from Vedic scriptures, where both bride and groom commit to each other and share responsibilities to their families. The other four were considered aprashasta (inappropriate), since they do not follow any Vedic rituals and vows.

Among inappropriate weddings, two acceptable forms of marriages were:

Gandharva marriage – in this type of marriage, the couple simply live together out of love, by mutual consent, consensually consummating their relationship. This marriage is entered into without religious ceremonies, and was akin to the Western concept of Common-law marriage. Kama Sutra, as well as Rishi Kanva – the foster-father of Shakuntala – in the Mahabharata, claimed this kind of marriage to be an ideal one.

Asura marriage – in this type of marriage, the groom offered a dowry to the father of the bride and to the bride; both accepted the dowry out of free will, and he received the bride in exchange. This was akin to marrying off a daughter for money. This marriage was considered inappropriate by Hindu Smriti-writers because greed, not what is best for the woman, can corrupt the selection process.

The last two marriages were not only inappropriate, but religiously forbidden (the children, if any, from these forbidden types of consummation were considered legitimate, nevertheless):

Rakshasa marriage – where the groom forcibly abducted the bride against her will and her family's will. (The word Rakshasa means “devil”.)

Paishacha marriage – where the man forces himself on a woman when she is insentient – when she is drugged or drunken or unconscious.

MAHABHARATA CHARACTERS: Explained

BHARAT: Bharat is the son of king Dushyanta and Shakuntala. King Dushyanta first encountered Shakuntala while travelling through the forest with his army. He was pursuing a male deer wounded by his weapon. Shakuntala and Dushyanta fell in love with each other and got married as per Gandharva marriage system. Before returning to his kingdom, Dushyanta gave his personal royal ring to Shakuntala as a symbol of his promise to return and bring her to his palace.

Time passed, and Shakuntala, wondering why Dushyanta did not return for her, finally set out for the capital city with her foster father "Kanva" and some of her companions. On the way, they had to cross a river by a canoe ferry and, seduced by the deep blue waters of the river, Shakuntala ran her fingers through the water. Her ring (Dushyanta's ring) slipped off her finger without her realizing it.

Arriving at Dushyanta's court, Shakuntala was hurt and surprised when her husband did not recognize her, nor recollected anything about her. She tried to remind him that she was his wife but without the ring, Dushyanta did not recognize her. Humiliated, she returned to the forests and, collecting her son, settled in a wild part of the forest by herself. Here she spent her days while Bharata, her son, grew older. Surrounded only by wild animals, Bharata grew to be a strong youth and made a sport of opening the mouths of tigers and lions and counting their teeth.

Meanwhile, a fisherman was surprised to find a royal ring in the belly of a fish he had caught. Recognizing the royal seal, he took the ring to the palace and, upon seeing his ring, Dushyanta's memories of his lovely bride came rushing back to him. He immediately set out to find her and, arriving at her father's ashram, discovered that she was no longer there. He continued deeper into the forest to find his wife and came upon a surprising scene in the forest: a young boy had pried open the mouth of a lion and was busy counting its teeth. The king greeted the boy, amazed by his boldness and strength, and asked his name. He was surprised when the boy answered that he was Bharata, the son of King Dushyanta. The boy took him to Shakuntala, and thus the family was reunited.

In some other versions, King Dushyant after marriage returned to his kingdom and didn't tell others about his marriage. He thought of disapproval from family about his marriage. When Shakuntala arrived with Bharat, then King Dushyant recognised her but didn't accepted due to the fear of disapproval from family and royal court. 

HASTI
KURU 

PRATIPA

According to the Mahabharata PRATIPA was the son of king Bhimasena and princess Sukumari of the Kaikeyas. He married Sunanda on whom he begot Devapi, Shantanu and Bahlika.

Pratipa meeting with GangaEdit

Once when King Pratipa was meditating on the bank of the river Ganges and muttering prayers, the Ganges, having assumed the form of an exceedingly beautiful woman, approached him and asked him to make love to her. But Pratipa refused to comply with her wishes in spite of her insistent requests, as he felt it was not in accordance with his own dharma. Finally, he proposed to her that she may marry his son and become his daughter-in-law. Ganga agreed on condition that Pratipa’s son should not know of her high birth and should never question whatever she did. Pratipa consented, whereupon Ganga disappeared in the river. 

At this time Pratipa and his wife were still without children, but after they had performed some acts of austerity, their son Shantanu was born to them. He was later to marry Ganga and became the father of Bhishma

Pratipa's eldest son Devapi a Kuru prince of Hastinapura was not given the throne succeeding his father. He was a noble and well-liked prince but he was not allowed to succeed Pratipa, because he was affected with leprosy and the council of Brahmins and elderly citizens were opposed to this proposal. As a result of this, his younger brother Shantanu succeeded Pratipa as the king of Hastinapura. Later Devapi retired to the forest for penance. 

Bahlika was the second of the three sons of Pratipa and his wife Sunanda, the king and queen of Hastinapur. With his eldest son Devapi set to inherit kingdom, Pratipa gifted some newly-conquered land to his second son; the land was given the name Bahlika as a result. 

However, due to leprosy, Pratipa's eldest son didn't became the king. Bahlika was next in line to ascend the throne, but felt that he would be an inadequate emperor, having never been raised as such. 

Shantanu then became the crown prince and upon Pratipa's death became the king of Hastinapur, with Bahlika's blessing

SHANTANU (6th Generation of KURU)

In the epic Mahabharata, Shantanu was a Kuru king of Hastinapura. He was a descendant of the Bharata race, of the lunar dynasty and great-grandfather of the Pandavas and Kauravas. He was the youngest son of King Pratipa of Hastinapura and had been born in the latter's old age. The eldest son Devapi had leprosy and gave up his inheritance to become a hermit. The middle son Bahlika (or Vahlika) abandoned his paternal kingdom and started living with his maternal uncle in Balkh and inherited his kingdom. Shantanu thus became the king of Hastinapura.

Brahma's Curse & Birth Of Shantanu

In his previous birth, there was a powerful king of the Ikshvaku dynasty named Mahabhisha. Mahabhisha possessed many virtuous qualities, and after performing a thousand Ashvamedha Yagnas and a hundred Rajasuya Yagnas (to qualify as emperor), he had attained heaven after his death. Once he got an opportunity to visit the court of Brahma where all the Devas and Ganga were also present. While the celestials were worshipping Brahma, a wind blew and displaced Ganga's clothes revealing her body. Everybody present there bashfully bent their heads except Mahabhisha who kept on gazing at her body. Upon seeing this act, Brahma lost his temper and cursed him to be born as mortals. Ganga who also enjoyed this act was cursed to be born as human and come back only after breaking Mahabhisha's heart. Mahabhisha then requested Brahma to be born as the son of Kuru king Pratipa and his wish was granted by Brahma to be born as Shantanu.

The Kuru king Pratipa was once meditating, in atonement for the crimes he had committed in seizing the throne of Hastinapur. At that time Ganga took the form of a beautiful woman, approached the king and sat on his right thigh. When he asked her what she wanted, Ganga requested him to become her husband. Pratipa however refused since he had taken a vow not to lust for anybody, and also that she had sat on his right thigh and according to traditions a man's right thigh was for his daughter or daughter-in-law while the left thigh was for his wife. He then proposed that she marry his son, to which she agreed.

A child was born to Pratipa and his wife Sunanda in their old age. He was named Shantanu because when he was born his father had controlled his passions by ascetic penances. Pratipa then installed Shantanu as king of Hastinapura and retired into the woods to perform penances. Bahlika who was elder than Shantanu also gave permission to him for becoming the king of Hastinapura.

SHANTANU and GANGA

Shantanu saw a beautiful woman on the banks of the river Ganges (Ganga) and asked her to marry him. She agreed but with one condition: that Shantanu would not ask any questions about her actions. They married and she later gave birth to a son. But she drowned the child. Shantanu could not ask her the reason, because of his promise, lest she would leave him. One by one, seven sons were born to them and were drowned by Ganga. When Ganga was about to drown the eighth son, Shantanu, devastated, could not restrain himself and confronted her. Finally, Ganga explained to King Shantanu about Brahma's curse given to Mahabhisha and her. Then she told him that their eight children were Eight Vasus who were cursed by Vasishtha to be born on earth as mortal humans however when they pacified him, he limited his curse and told them that they would be freed from this curse within a year of their birth as humans. So she released the seven of them from this life by drowning them all. However the Vasu Dyaus was cursed to live a long life and to never have a wife or have children. But the sage also gave a boon to him that he would be virtuous, conversant with all the holy scriptures and will be an obedient son to his father. that she will take him to the heavens to train him properly for the King's throne and status. With these words she disappeared along with the child while Shantanu was struck with grief thinking about spending the rest of his life without her.

DEVAVRATA (BHISHMA)

Shantanu, filled with grief from the loss of his wife and son, began to practise Brahmacharya and ruled his kingdom extremely well. By merely adopting virtuous behaviour, Shantanu was easily able to conquer the entire world without lifting weapons. All the kings declared Shantanu as Emperor and his reign was a peaceful one. Shantanu gave up hunting and gained popularity from his subjects.

One day, while walking along the banks of the Ganga, Shantanu saw that the river had become shallow. While searching for the cause of this phenomenon, he came across a handsome young boy who had checked the river's flow with his celestial weapon. The young boy was his son, however he didn't recognize him because he could see him only for a few moments after he was born. The boy recognized that he was his father, however he didn't reveal it to him instead he disappeared from his sight using his power of illusion. Shantanu upon seeing this, wondered whether the boy was actually his son and called upon Ganga to show the boy to him. Ganga having thus appeared, revealed to him that the boy was actually his son Devavrata and that he was taught the knowledge of the holy scriptures by the sage Vasishtha and the art of warfare by Parshurama. After revealing the truth about Devavrata she told Shantanu to take him to Hastinapura. Upon reaching the capital Shantanu crowned Devavrata as the heir-apparent to the throne.

SATYAVATI

Four years later, Shantanu while travelling near the banks of Yamuna smelled a sweet scent coming from an unknown direction. While searching for the cause of the scent, he came across Satyavati from whom the smell of scent was coming. Satyavati was an adopted daughter of the chief of the fishermen of her village. Upon seeing her, Shantanu fell in love with her and desired to her. Upon asking for his consent, her father agreed to the marriage on condition that Satyavati's son would inherit the throne of Hastinapura.

King Shantanu was unable to give his word on accession as his eldest son Devavrata was the heir to the throne. However, Devavrata came to know about this and for the sake of his father, gave his word to the chief that he would renounce all his claims to the throne, in favour of Satyavati's children. To reassure the skeptical chief, further he also vowed lifelong celibacy to ensure that future generations borne of Satyavati would also not be challenged by his offsprings. Upon hearing this vow he immediately agreed to the marriage of Satyavati and Shantanu. Devavrata was named as Bhishma (one who has taken a terrible vow) by the celestials because of the terrible oath he took. Upon returning with Satyavati to Hastinapura he told about his vow to his father. Upon hearing about this Shantanu became highly impressed and gave him a boon that he will only die if he chooses so. Shantanu and Satyavati went on to have two sons, Chitrāngada and Vichitravirya. After Shantanu's death, Vichitravirya became the king of Hastinapura because Chitrangada was killed by a gandharva of same name when Shantanu was still alive.

CHITRANGADA
king Chitrāngada is the elder son of Shantanu and Satyavati. He ascended the throne of Hastinapura after his father's death, but was killed by a Gandharva namesake. Chitrangada's fame brought to his palace gates a Gandharva also named Chitrangada, who challenged him to a duel. They fought a fierce and evenly matched battle for three years on the banks of river Saraswati, at the end of which the Gandharva emerged successful.

VICHITRAVIRYA
Vichitravirya  is the younger son of queen Satyavati and king Shantanu and grandfather of the Pandavas and Kaurava. His elder brother Chitrāngada, had initially succeeded their father to the throne of the Kuru Kingdom, but when he died childless, Vichitravirya succeeded him. He was married to Ambika and Ambalika. Vichitravirya too died childless like his brother, and through a procedure by his half-brother sage Vyasa, his wives and a maid gave birth to three children, namely Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura.

Vichitravirya having died of sickness, Bhishma unable to take the throne because of his vow, and Bahlika's line unwilling to leave Bahlika Kingdom, there was a succession crisis in Hastinapur. Satyavati invites her son Vyasa to impregnate the queens Ambika and Ambalika under the Niyoga practice. When Vyasa went to impregnate Ambika, she got frightened due to his scary appearance and closed her eyes during their union; hence, her son was born blind.

When Vyasa approached Ambalika, she got frightened due to his scary appearance, she had become pale in disgust; hence, her son was born pale. Thus Pandu's name.

DHRITARASTRA
Dhritarashtra "He who supports/bears the nation" is the King of Kuru Kingdom with its capital Hastinapur. He was born to Vichitravirya's first wife Ambika, and was fathered by Veda Vyasa. Dhritarashtra was blind from birth, and became father to one hundred sons and one daughter by his wife Gandhari , and another son Yuyutsu by Sughada, his wife's maid. These children, including the eldest son Duryodhana, came to be known as the Kauravas.

Dhritarashtra marries Gandhari of Hastinapur's weakened and lowly vassal Ghandar; Gandhari covers her eyes with cloth in order to better understand her husband's blindness.^[8]He and Gandhari had one hundred sons, called the Kauravas and one daughter Dushala. He also had a son named Yuyutsu with Sauvali (concubine).


PANDU
Pandu "yellowish, whitish, pale", was the king of Hastinapur, the son of Ambalikaand Vyasa. He is more popularly known as the earthly father of the Pandavas, who were called so after him. He was said to be responsible and a great warrior, who expanded his kingdom during his rule.

Pandu was taught in the fields of archery, politics, administration and religion by Bhisma. He was an excellent archer and Maharathi (warrior). He became the successor to his kingdom and was crowned King of the Kuru Kingdom. He was married to Kunti, the adoptive daughter of Kuntibhoja and the daughter of Shurasena (Father of Vasudeva and grandfather of the Hindu god Krishna). Pandu later conquered the territories of the Sindhu Kingdom, Kashi, Anga, Trigarta Kingdom, Kalinga, Magadha, etc., and thus re-established their supremacy over all the kings and increased the span of his empire. He was then married to Madri, the princess of Madra during this military campaign.

While hunting in a forest, (looking from a distance, his vision partially obscured by plants and trees), Pandu saw a couple of deer in the process of coitus, and shot arrows at them; only to find out that it was Rishi Kindama and his wife who were making love in the form of deer. The dying sage placed a curse on Pandu, since he had not only killed them in the midst of lovemaking, but was not remorseful for his action. King Pandu argued with sage Kindama by misquoting sage Agastya's ruling on the right of Kshatriyas' on hunting. Sage Kindama then cursed Pandu, the curse being that were he to approach his wives with the intent of making love, he would die. Upset and seeking to repent his action, Pandu renounced his kingdom and lived as an ascetic with his wives. It was during this time that his five children were born.

One day, Pandu forgot about this curse and suddenly embraced Madri. At the same time, his curse fulfilled and he died. His dead body was cremated in the forest itself. Madri committed suicide in his funeral pyre through a custom called Sati.

VIDUR
Vidura was born from Niyoga- between sage Vyasa and a hand-maiden to the queens- Amba and Ambalika.Amba and Ambalika were wives of king Vichitravirya - the grandfather to Kauravas,Pandavas and Karna; and the father of Dhritaraashtra and Pandu . 

When it came time to nominate an heir, Vidura suggested that Pandu would be a better fit because he wasn't blind. Though bitter at the result, Dhritarashtra willingly conceded the crown, though this act would flower into the protectiveness he would have over his crown later in life.



VASISTHA
Vasishtha is a revered Vedic sage in Hinduism. He is one of the Saptarishis (seven great Rishis) of India. Vasishtha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of Rigveda. Vasishtha and his family are mentioned in Rigvedic mandalas and in many Vedic texts. His ideas have been influential and he was called as the first sage of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy by Adi Shankara.

He was married to Arundhati, and therefore he was also called Arundhati Nath, meaning the husband of Arundhati. Vasishtha is believed to have lived on the banks of Ganga in modern-day Uttarakhand. Later, this region is believed in the Indian tradition to be the abode of sage Vyasa along with Pandavas, the five brothers of Mahabharata. He was in possession of Kamadhenu cow, "the cow of plenty".

SHAKTI
Śhaktri Mahariṣhi was son of Vaśiṣṭha and Arundhati. He was the father of Parāśara mentioned in the Mahabharata. He was one among the Advaita Guru Parampara.


PARASARA
VED VYAS


AMBA
AMBIKA
AMBALIKA

DURYODHAN + 99 BROTHERS
DUSHAALA
KARNA
YUDHISTHIR
BHEEM
ARJUN
NAKUL
GHATOTACHAK
ABHIMANYU
PARIKSHIT
JANMAJEYA
SAHADEV


YADU
SURASEN
KUNTIBHOJ
NANDLAL
PRITHA
KUNTI
BALARAM
KRISHNA
SUBHADRA

SYSTEMS OF WORKING in INDIAN RAILWAYS

Systems of working:

 All trains working between stations shall be worked on one of the following systems, namely :– 

(a) The Absolute Block System. 
(b) The Automatic Block System, 
(c) The Following Trains System, 
(d) The Pilot Guard System, 
(e) The Train-staff and Ticket System, or 
(f) The One Train Only System. 

Out of these, The Absolute Block and the Automatic Block Systems are widely used on every railway. The other systems are adopted where the trains are less, the section is small and so cost on signalling system is avoided by adopting simpler systems. 

The Absolute Block System is in force in South Eastern Railway in all sections, except the following– Section System of working in force 

(i) Tikiapara Kharagpur Automatic Block system. (Double line) 

(ii) Tatanagar-Rajkharswan Automatic Block System. (Double line)

(iii) Chandil-Sini Automatic Block System. (Double line) 

(iv) Tikiapara-Panskura Single line Automatic Block (Middle line) System. 

(v) Tata-Aunlajhari Train staff and ticket System. 

(vi) Aunlajhari-Badampahar One train only system 

(vii) Aunlajhari-Gorumahisani One train only system 

(viii)Bhanjapur-Bangriposi One train only system

(ix) Bankura-Sonamukhi One train only system 


(a) The Absolute Block System. 
The section between two block stations is called a block section and only one train can be allowed in one block section under normal conditions. The stations are provided with signals so that a train from a station can only start when line clear has been obtained from the block station in advance. This system follows the principle of SPACE GAP.

Download GR Chapter 8



(b) The Automatic Block System, 

When the number of trains increase, a time comes when the section in Absolute Block System starts becoming saturated. Then to handle additional traffic, the The Automatic Block System is adopted. In this system a block section between two block station is split into more sections, and each such sections can accommodate a train. When Automatic Block System is adopted, a increase of 25% of section capacity can be achieved. This system follows the principle of SPACE GAP.

Download GR chapter 9

(c) The Following Trains System, 

In this system one train follows the another at a time interval of minimum 15 minutes and run with maximum speed of 25 kmph. The driver of each train shall be given a written authority about which train(s) it is following and which train(s) will follow. This system follows the principle of TIME GAP.

Download GR Chapter 10


(d) The Pilot Guard System, 

In this system a PILOT wearing a red dress with badge shall act as an authority to start a train. If two or more trains are to start from a station then earlier trains shall be given with written authority called ticket. The driver shall see that either PILOT is accompanying the train. In case other trains are to run in follow, then the driver shall be given an authority to start the train and PILOT is available at the station. The trains are allowed with time gap of 15 minutes and maximum speed of 25 kmph. This system follows the principle of TIME GAP.

Download GR Chapter 11

(e) The Train-staff and Ticket System,  


This is similar to PILOT GUARD system. The difference is that instead of PILOT GUARD, a TRAIN-STAFF is kept at station. The TRAIN STAFF is a stick with the label and act as an authority. The driver shall ensure that either TRAIN STAFF is given to him. In case other trains are to run in follow, then the driver shall be given an authority to start the train and TRAIN STAFF is available at the station. The trains are allowed with time gap of 15 minutes and maximum speed of 25 kmph. This system follows the principle of TIME GAP.

Download GR Chapter 12

(f) The One Train Only System. 

This system is adopted in branch lines where there is only one train to run in that section. The speed of train is normal speed. Sections where trains are worked on the one Train only System in the S.E.Rly are (1) Aunlajhori-Gurumahishani, (2) Aunlajhori-Badampahar(3) Bankura-Sonamukhi(4) Rupsa-Baripada.

Download GR Chapter 13